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International Standard Book Number 1-56670-665-3
Library of Congress Card Number 2004015982
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publi cation Data
Handbook of ecological indicators for assessment of ecosystem health / edited
by Sven E. Jørgensen, Robert Costanza, Fu-Liu Xu.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56670-665-3
1. Ecosystem health. 2. Environmental indicators. I. Jørgensen, Sven Erik,
1934. II. Costanza, Robert. III. Xu, Fu-Liu. IV. Title.
QH541.15.E265H36 2005
577.27 dc22 2004015982
The Editors
Sven Erik Jørgensen is professor of environmental chemistry at the Danish
University of Pharmaceutical Sciences. He has doctorates in engineering from
Karlsruhe University and sciences from Copenhagen University. He has been
editor in chief of Ecological Modelling since the journal started in 1975. He is
chairman of the International Lake Environment Committee. He has edited or
authored 58 books in Danish and English and written 300 papers of which two-
thirds have been published in peer-reviewed international journals. He was the
first person to receive the Prigogine Award in 2004 for his outstanding work in
the use thus far of equilibrium thermodynamics on ecosystems. He has also
received the prestigious Stockholm Water Prize for his outstanding contribu-
tion to a global dissemination of ecological modeling and ecological manage-
ment of aquatic ecosystems, mainly lakes and wetlands.
Robert Costanza is Gordon Gund professor of ecological economics and
director of the Gund Institute for Ecological Economics in the Rubenstein
School of Environment and Natur al Resources at the University of Vermont.
His research interests include: landscape-level integrated spatial simulation
modeling; analysis of energy and material flows through economic and
ecological systems; valuation of ecosystem services, biodiversity, and natural
capital; and analysis of dysfunctional incentive systems and ways to correct
them. He is the author or co-author of over 350 scientific papers and 18 books.
His work has been cited in more than 2000 scientific articles since 1987 and
more than 100 interviews and reports on his work have appeared in various
popular media.
Fu-Liu Xu is an associate professor at the College of Environmental Sciences,
Peking University, China. He was a guest professor at the Research Cent er for
Environmental Quality Control (RCRQC), Kyoto University, from August
2003 to January 2004; and at the Research Center for Environmental Sciences,
Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), from August to October 2001. He
is a member of the editorial boards for two international journals. He received
his Ph.D. from Royal Danish University of Pharmacy in 1998. His research
fields include system ecology and ecological modeling, ecosystem health and
ecological indicators, ecosystem planning and management.
Contributors
M. Austoni
University of Parma
Parma, Italy
S. Bargigli
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
Simone Bastianoni
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
Paul Bertram
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Chicago, Illinois
Mark T. Brown
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
Villy Christiansen
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, Canada
Philippe Cury
Centre de Recherche Halieutique
Me
´
diterrane
´
enne et Tropicale
Se
`
te, France
Guilio A. De Leo
University of Parma
Parma, Italy
Robert Deal
Shawnee State University
Portsmouth, Ohio
Christina Forst
Oak Ridge Institute for Science
and Education, on appointment
to U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
G. Giordani
University of Parma
Parma, Italy
Paul Horvatin
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Chicago, Illinois
Sven E. Jørgensen
Danish University of
Pharmaceutical Sciences
Copenhagen, Denmark
Nadia Marchettini
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
Joao C. Marques
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
William J. Mitsch
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
Felix Mu
¨
ller
University of Kiel
Kiel, Germany
Miguel A. Pardal
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
Jaciro M. Patrı
´
cio
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
Charles Perrings
University of York
York, United Kingdo m
I. Petrosillo
University of Lecce
Lecce, Italy
Martin Plus
Ifremer-Station d’Arcachon
De
´
partement Environnement
Littoral
Quai du Cdt Silhouette
Arcachon, France
Federico Maria Pulselli
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
Dave Raffaelli
University of York
York, United Kingdo m
M. Raugei
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
Anna Renwick
University of York
York, United Kingdo m
Marco Rosini
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
F. Salas
University of Coimbra
Coimbra, Portugal
Harvey Shear
Environment Canada
Downsview, Ontario, Canada
Jim Smart
University of York
York, United Kingdo m
Yuri M. Svirezhev
Potsdam Institute for Climate
Impact Research
Potsdam, Germany
Sergio Ulgiati
University of Siena
Siena, Italy
P. Viaroli
University of Parma
Parma, Italy
Naiming Wang
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
P.G. Wells
Environment Canada
Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada
Piran White
University of York
York, United Kingdo m
Xixyuan Wu
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
Fu-Liu Xu
Peking University
Beijing, China
N. Zaccarelli
University of Lecce
Lecce, Italy
Jose Manuel Zaldı
´
var-Comenges
European Commission, Joint
Research Center
Institute for Environment and
Sustainability
Inland and Marine Water Unit
Ispra, Italy
Li Zhang
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
Giovanni Zurlini
University of Lecce
Lecce, Italy
Andy Zuwerink
Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio
Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
S.E. Jørgensen
1.1 The Role of Ecosystem Health Assessment in Environmental
Management 1
1.2 The Conceptual Flow in This Volume 4
References 4
Chapter 2
Application of Indicators for the Assessment of Ecosystem Health 5
S.E. Jørgensen, F L. Xu, F. Salas, and J.C. Marques
2.1 Criteria for the Selection of Ecological Indicators for EHA 6
2.2 Classification of Ecosystem Health Indicators 7
2.2.1 Level 1 7
2.2.2 Level 2 8
2.2.3 Level 3 8
2.2.4 Level 4 8
2.2.5 Level 5 9
2.2.6 Level 6 9
2.2.7 Level 7 10
2.2.8 Level 8 10
2.3 Indices Based on Indicator Species 10
2.3.1 Bellan’s Pollution Index 11
2.3.2 Pollution Index Based on Ampiphoids 12
2.3.3 AMBI 12
2.3.4 Bentix 13
2.3.5 Macrofauna Monitoring Index 13
2.3.6 Benthic Response Index 14
2.3.7 Conservation Index 14
2.4 Indices Based on Ecological Strategies 16
2.4.1 Nematodes/Copepods Index 19
2.4.2 Polychaetes/Amphipods Index 19
2.4.3 Infaunal Index 19
2.4.4 Feldman Index 20
2.5 Indices Based on the Diversity Value 21
2.5.1 Shannon–Wiener Index 21
2.5.2 Pielou Evenness Index 22
2.5.3 Margalef Index 23
2.5.4 Berger–Parker Index 23
2.5.5 Simpson Index 23
2.5.6 Deviation from the Log-Normal Distribution 23
2.5.7 K-Dominance Curves 24
2.5.8 Average Taxonomic Diversity 24
2.5.9 Average Taxonomic Distinctness 24
2.6 Indicators Based on Species Biomass and Abundance 25
2.6.1 ABC Method 25
2.7 Indicators Integrating All Environment Information 26
2.7.1 Trophic Index 27
2.7.2 Coefficient of Pollution 27
2.7.3 Benthic Index of Environmental Condition 28
2.7.4 B-IBI 28
2.7.5 Biotic Integrity (IBI) for Fishes 28
2.7.6 Fish Health Index (FHI) 29
2.7.7 Estuarine Ecological Index (EBI) 29
2.7.8 Estuarine Fish Importance Rating (FIR) 30
2.8 Presentation and Definition of Level 7 and 8 Indicators —
Holistic Indicators 30
2.9 An Overview of Appli cable Ecological Indicators for EHA 46
2.10 EHA: Procedures 47
2.10.1 Direct Measurement Method (DMM) 47
2.10.2 Ecological Model Method (EMM) 47
2.10.3 Ecosystem Health Index Method (EHIM ) 47
2.11 An Integrated, Consi stent Ecosystem Theory That Can Be
Applied as the Theoretical Basis for EHA 49
References 55
Appendix A 65
Chapter 3
Application of Ecological Indicators to Assess Environmental Quality in
Coastal Zones and Transitional Waters: Two Case Studies 67
J.C. Marques, F. Salas, J.M. Patrı
´
cio, and M.A. Pardal
3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 Brief Review on the Application of Ecological Indicators in
Ecosystems of Coastal and Transitional Waters 69
3.2.1 Indicators Based on Species Presence vs. Absence 70
3.2.2 Biodiversity as Reflected in Diversity Measures 76
3.2.3 Indicators Based on Ecological Strategies 77
3.2.4 Indicators Based on Species Biomass and
Abundance 77
3.2.5 Indicators Accounting for the Whole Environmental
Information 77
3.2.6 Thermodynamically Oriented and Network
Analysis-Based Indicators 78
3.3 How to Choose the Most Adequate Indicator? 78
3.4 Case Studies: Subtidal Benthic Communities in the Mondego
Estuary (Atlantic Coast of Portugal) and Mar Menor
(Mediterranean Coast of Spain) 78
3.4.1 Study Areas and Type of Data Utilized 78
3.4.2 Selected Ecological Indicators 83
3.4.3 Summary of Results 83
3.4.3.1 Mondego Estuary 83
3.4.3.2 Mar Menor 91
3.5 Was the Use of the Selected Indicators Satisfactory in the
Two Case Studies? 94
3.5.1 Application of Indicators Based on the Presence
vs. Absence of Species: AMBI 94
3.5.2 Indices Based on Ecologic Strategies:
Polychaetes/Amphipods Ratio 95
3.5.3 Biodiversity as Reflected in Diversity Measures:
Margalef and Shannon–Wienner Indices 95
3.5.4 Indicators Based on Species Biomass
and Abundance: W statistic 96
3.5.5 Thermodynamically Oriented and Network
Analysis-Based Indicators: Exergy Index,
Specific Exergy and Ascendancy 96
3.5.5.1 Exergy and Specific Exergy 96
3.5.5.2 Ascendancy 97
3.5.6 Brief Conclusions 97
References 99
Chapter 4
Development and Appli cation of Ecosystem Health Indicators in the
North American Great Lakes Basin 105
H. Shear, P. Bertram, C. Forst, and P. Horvatin
4.1 Introduction 106
4.1.1 Background on the Great Lakes Basin 106
4.1.2 Indicator Selection 107
4.1.3 Definition of the Selected Indicators 109
4.2 General Considerations 110
4.2.1 Ecological Description of the Great Lakes Basin 110
4.2.1.1 Toxic Contaminants 110
4.2.1.2 Land Use 110
4.2.1.3 Invasive Species 111
4.2.1.4 Habitat Status Including Wetlands 111
4.2.1.5 Lake Ecology 111
4.2.1.6 Nutrients 112
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